Bowman, A. J., Clayton, R. H., Murray, A., Reed, J. W., Subhan, M. M., and Ford, G. A. (1997). Effects of aerobic exercise training and yoga on the baroreflex in healthy elderly persons. European Journal of Clinical Investigation 27, 443-449.

METHOD: The effects of aerobic exercise training and yoga, a non-aerobic control intervention, on the baroreflex of elderly persons were determined. Baroreflex sensitivity was quantified by the alpha-index, at high frequency (reflecting parasympathetic activity) and mid-frequency (reflecting sympathetic activity as well), derived from spectral and cross-spectral analysis of spontaneous fluctuations in heart rate and blood pressure. Twenty-six sedentary, healthy, normotensive elderly subjects were studied. Fourteen of the sedentary elderly subjects completed 6 weeks of aerobic training, while the other 12 subjects completed 6 weeks of yoga. RESULTS: Heart rate decreased following yoga but not aerobic training. VO2 max increased by 11% following yoga and by 24% following aerobic training. No significant change in alpha MF or alpha HF occurred after aerobic training. Following yoga, alpha HF but not alpha MF increased.

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Damodaran, A., et al (2002). Therapeutic potential of yoga practices in modifying cardiovascular risk profile in middle aged men and women. J Assoc Physicians India. 50, 633-40.

METHOD: Twenty patients with mild to moderate essential hypertension underwent yogic practices daily for one hour for three months. RESULTS: Results showed decreased blood pressure blood glucose, cholesterol and triglycerides and improved subjective well-being and quality of life.

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Harinath, K., et al. (2004). Effects of Hatha yoga and Omkar meditation on cardiorespiratory performance, psychologic profile, and melatonin secretion. J Altern Complement Med 10, 261-8.

METHOD: Thirty healthy men were randomly divided into two groups. Controls performed body flexibility exercises for 40 minutes and slow running for 20 minutes during morning hours and played games for 60 minutes during evening hours daily for 3 months. Group 2 subjects practiced selected yogic postures for 45 minutes. RESULTS: Yogic practices for 3 months resulted in improved cardiorespiratory performance and psychologic profiles. Plasma melatonin also increased after three months of yogic practices.

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Madanmohan, Udupa, K., Bhavanani, A.B., Shatapathy, C.C. & Sahai, A. (2004). Modulation of cardiovascular response to exercise by yoga training. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 48, 461-5.

METHOD: This study reports the effects of yoga training on cardiovascular response to exercise and the time course of recovery after the exercise. Cardiovascular response to exercise was determined by the Harvard step test using a platform of 45 cm height. The subjects were asked to step up and down the platform at a rate of 30/min for a total duration of 5 min or until fatigue, whichever was earlier. Heart rate (HR) and blood pressure response to exercise were measured in the supine position before exercise and at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 minutes after the exercise. RESULTS: Exercise produced a significant increase in HR, systolic pressure and a significant decrease in diastolic pressure. After two months of yoga training, exercise-induced changes in these parameters were significantly reduced.

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Manchanda SC. Narang R. Reddy KS. Sachdeva U. Prabhakaran D. Dharmanand S. Rajani M. Bijlani R. (2000). Retardation of coronary atherosclerosis with yoga lifestyle intervention. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India. 48, 687-94.

METHOD: Yoga effects were evaluated on retardation of coronary atherosclerotic disease. In this prospective, randomized, controlled trial, 42 men with angiographically proven coronary artery disease were randomized to control and yoga intervention groups and were followed for one year. The active group was treated with a user-friendly program consisting of yoga, control of risk factors, diet control and moderate aerobic exercise. The control group was managed by conventional methods i.e. risk factor control and American Heart Association step I diet. RESULTS: At one year, the yoga group had fewer anginal episodes per week, improved exercise capacity and decreased in body weight. Serum total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels also decreased as compared with the control group. Revascularisation procedures (coronary angioplasty or bypass surgery) were less frequently required in the yoga group. Coronary angiography repeated at one year showed that significantly more lesions regressed (20% versus 2%) and less lesions progressed (5% versus 37%) in the yoga group.

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Telles, S., Joshi, M., Dash, M., Raghuraj, P., Naveen, K.V., & Nagendra, H.R. (2004). An evaluation of the ability to voluntarily reduce the heart rate after a month of yoga practice. Integr Physiol Behav Sci., 39, 119-25.

METHOD: This study determined whether yoga reduced heart rate and whether the reduction would be more after 30 days of yoga training. Two groups (yoga and control, n = 12 each) were assessed on Day 1 and on Day 30. During the intervening 30 days, the yoga group received training in yoga techniques while the control group carried on with their routine. At each assessment the baseline heart rate was recorded for one minute. This was followed by a six-minute period during which participants were asked to attempt to voluntarily reduce their heart rate, using any strategy. RESULTS: Both the baseline heart rate and the lowest heart rate achieved voluntarily during the six-minute period were significantly lower in the yoga group on Day 30 compared to Day 1 by a group average of 10.7 beats per minute (i.e., bpm) and 6.8 bpm, respectively. In contrast, there was no significant change in either the baseline heart rate or the lowest heart rate achieved voluntarily in the control group on Day 30 compared to Day 1.

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Telles S. Reddy SK. Nagendra HR. (2000). Oxygen consumption and respiration following two yoga relaxation techniques. Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback 25, 221-7.

METHOD: Two yoga practices, one combining "calming and stimulating" measures and the other, a "calming" technique, were compared. The oxygen consumption, breath rate, and breath volume of 40 male volunteers were assessed before and after sessions. RESULTS: The magnitude of change on all 3 measures was greater after the calming and stimulating session: (1) Oxygen consumption decreased 32% compared with 10%; (2) breath rate decreased 18% versus 15%; and (3) breath volume increased 29% versus 16%.

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Yogendra, J., et al. (2004). Beneficial effects of yoga lifestyle on reversibility of ischaemic heart disease: caring heart project of International Board of Yoga. J Assoc Physicians India 52:283-9.

METHOD: Angiographically proven coronary artery disease patients were given a Yoga Program. RESULTS: At the end of one year of yoga training, total cholesterol was reduced by 23% in the yoga group as compared to 4% in controls and serum LDL cholesterol was reduced by 26% in the yoga group as compared to 3% in the control group.

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Carpal Tunnel

Garfinkel, M.S., Singhal, A., Katz, W.A., Allan, D.A., Reshetar, R. & Schumacher, H.R.J. (1998). Yoga-based intervention for carpal tunnel syndrome: a randomized trial. JAMA, 280, 1601-1603.

METHOD: Forty-two individuals with carpal tunnel syndrome were assigned to a yoga group receiving 11 yoga postures designed for strengthening, stretching, and balancing each joint in the upper body along with relaxation given twice weekly for 8 weeks. Patients in the control group were offered a wrist splint to supplement their current treatment. RESULTS: Yoga was more effective than wrist splinting or no treatment in relieving symptoms and signs of carpal tunnel syndrome including grip strength, pain intensity, sleep disturbance, Phalen sign, and Tinel sign, and in median nerve motor and sensory conduction time.

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Cognition

Manjunath,-N-K; Telles,-Shirley (1999). Improvement in visual perceptual sensitivity in children following yoga training. Journal-of-Indian-Psychology 17, 41-45.

METHOD: 14 children who received 10 days of yoga training and 14 controls who did not receive yoga training were assessed on Day 1 and Day 10 for visual perceptual sensitivity through Critical Flicker Fusion Frequency (CFF) and degree of illusion. RESULTS: Following 10 days of yoga training, the yoga group showed a significant increase in CFF and a decrease in degree of illusion; the control group showed no change.

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Telles S. Ramaprabhu V. Reddy SK. (2000). Effect of yoga training on maze learning. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 44,197-201.

METHOD: Performance on a maze learning task was assessed in 31 adults before and after 30 days of yoga training and in a control group of subjects who did not receive yoga training. Subjects were blind-folded and used the dominant hand to trace a path in a wooden pencil maze. At each assessment, subjects were given 5 trials, without a gap between them. Performance was based on the time taken to complete the maze and the number of blind alleys taken. RESULTS: The time and error scores of Trial 1 were significantly less after yoga. Hence the yoga group showed improved performance in maze tracing at retest 30 days later.

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Cortisol

Kamei, T., Toriumi, Y., Kimura, H., Ohno, S., Kumano, H. & Kimura, K. (2000). Decrease in serum cortisol during yoga exercise is correlated with alpha wave activation. Perception and Motor Skills, 90,1027-32.

METHOD:This study examined changes in brain waves and blood levels of serum cortisol during yoga exercise. RESULTS: Alpha waves increased and serum cortisol decreased. These two measures were negatively correlated.

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Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness

Boyle, C.A., Sayers, S.P., Jensen, B.E., Headley, S.A. & Manos, T.M. (2004). The effects of yoga training and a single bout of yoga on delayed onset muscle soreness in the lower extremity. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18, 723-9.

METHOD: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of yoga training on the intensity of delayed onset muscle soreness. 24 yoga-trained and non-yoga-trained women were administered a bench-stepping exercise. Muscle soreness was assessed using a Visual Analog Scale. Groups were also compared on body awareness, flexibility using the sit-and-reach test, and perceived exertion. RESULTS: Muscle sorness decreased and flexibility increased using the sit-and-reach-test after yoga.

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Depression

 

Khumar, S. S, Kaur P. & Kaur S. (1993). Effectiveness of Shavasana on depression among university students. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology 20, 82-87.

METHOD: The effectiveness of yoga was examined as a therapeutic technique to alleviate depression. 50 female university students were diagnosed with severe depression; 25 experienced 30 Yoga sessions and 25 served as controls. RESULTS: The results revealed that (1) Yoga was an effective technique for alleviating depression and (2) continuation of the treatment for a longer period resulted in a significantly increased positive change in the Ss.

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Platania-Solazzo, A., Field, T. M., Blank, J., Seligman, F., Kuhn, C., Schanberg, S., and Saab, P. (1992). Relaxation therapy reduces anxiety in child and adolescent psychiatric patients. Acta Paedopsychiatrica 55, 115-120.

METHOD: The immediate effects of relaxation therapy (RT) were assessed in 40 hospitalized children and adolescents with diagnoses of adjustment disorder and depression. These effects were assessed using a within subjects pre-test/post-test design and by comparison with a control group of 20 depressed and adjustment disorder patients who watched a 1-h relaxing videotape. The 1-h RT class consisted of yoga exercise, a brief massage and progressive muscle relaxation. RESULTS: Decreases were noted in both self-reported anxiety and in anxious behavior and fidgeting as well as increases in positive affect in the RT, but not the video group. In addition, adjustment disorder patients and a third of the depressed patients showed decreases in cortisol levels following RT, while no changes were noted in the video group. Thus, both diagnostic groups appeared to benefit from the RT class.

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Woolery, A., Myers, H., Sternlieb, B. & Zeltzer L. (2004). A yoga intervention for young adults with elevated symptoms of depression. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 10, 60-3.

METHOD:Twenty-eight young adults pre-screened for mild levels of depression were randomly assigned to a yoga course or a wait-list control group. Subjects in the yoga group attended two 1-hour Iyengar yoga classes each week for 5 consecutive weeks. The classes emphasized yoga postures thought to alleviate depression, particularly back bends, standing poses, and inversions. RESULTS: Subjects who participated in the yoga course demonstrated significant decreases in self-reported symptoms of depression and trait anxiety. These effects emerged by the middle of the yoga course and were maintained by the end.

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Diabetes

Jain, S. C., Uppal, A., Bhatnagar, S. O., & Talukdar, B. (1993). A study of response pattern of non-insulin dependent diabetics to yoga therapy. Diabetes Research & Clinical Practice 19, 69-74.

METHOD: Changes in blood glucose and glucose tolerance by oral glucose tolerance test were investigated after 40 days of yoga in 149 non-insulin-dependent diabetics. RESULTS: One hundred and four patients showed a fair to good response to the yoga therapy. There was a significant reduction in hyperglycemia and a decrease in oral hypoglycemic drugs required for maintenance of normoglycemia.

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Malhotra, V., et al. (2002). Effect of Yoga asanas on nerve conduction in type 2 diabetes. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol (3):298-306.

METHOD: Twenty Type 2 diabetic subjects were studied to see the effect of 40 days of Yoga asanas on nerve conduction velocity. The Yoga exercises were performed for 30-40 minutes every day for 40 days in the above sequence. RESULTS: Right hand and left hand median nerve conduction velocity increased. Control group nerve function parameters deteriorated over the period of study.

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Singh, S., et al. (2004). Role of yoga in modifying certain cardiovascular functions in type 2 diabetic patients. J Assoc Physicians India.52:203-6.

METHOD: The present study was conducted with twenty-four Type 2 diabetic cases. Patients were trained in yoga asanas 30-40 min/day for 40 days. RESULTS: There was a significant decrease in fasting blood glucose levels from basal 190. Blood glucose levels as well as glycosylated hemoglobin levels decreased. The pulse rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure also decreased.

 

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EMG

Narayan, R., Kamat, A., Khanolkar, M., Kamat, S., Desai, S. R., & Dhume, R. A. (1990). Quantitative evaluation of muscle relaxation induced by Kundalini yoga with the help of EMG integrator. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 34, 279-281.

METHOD: The present work quantified the degree of muscle relaxation following Yoga. RESULTS: The EMG data collected from 8 individuals (4 males 4 females) on the degree of muscle relaxation at the end of Yoga revealed a significant decrease in muscle activity amounting to 58% of the basal level in both sexes.

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Epilepsy

 

Ramaratnam, S. & Sridharan, K. (2000). Yoga for epilepsy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (3):CD001524

METHOD: To assess the efficacy of yoga in the treatment of patients with epilepsy, the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register, randomized control trials on treatment of epilepsy with yoga. RESULTS: Only one study met the selection criteria, and recruited a total of 32 patients, 10 to yoga and 22 to control treatments. Antiepileptic drugs were continued in all. Randomization was by roll of a dice. The results of this study were as follows: (1) Four patients treated with yoga were seizure free for six months compared to none in the control groups. (2) Nine patients in the yoga group had more than a 50% reduction in seizure frequency compared to only one among the controls. (3) There was a decline in the average number of attacks per month compared to the baseline frequency among the patients treated with yoga. (4) More than a 50% reduction in seizure duration was found in seven of the 10 patients treated with yoga, compared to none among the 22 controls.

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Exercise

Bera, T. K. & Rajapurkar, M. V. (1993). Body composition, cardiovascular endurance and anaerobic power of yogic practitioner. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 37, 225-228.

METHOD: Forty male high school students, age 12-15 yrs, participated in a study on yoga in relation to body composition, cardiovascular endurance and anaerobic power. The Ss were assigned to a yoga group and control group. Body composition, cardiovascular endurance and anaerobic power were measured. RESULTS: The results revealed a significant improvement in ideal body weight, body density, cardiovascular endurance and anaerobic power following yoga.

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Raju, P. S., Madhavi, S., Prasad, K. V., Reddy, M. V., Reddy, M. E., Sahay, B. K., & Murthy, K. J. (1994). Comparison of effects of yoga & physical exercise in athletes. Indian Journal of Medical Research 100, 81-86.

METHOD: The effect of yoga breathing practice on exercise tests was studied in athletes in two phases; sub-maximal and maximal exercise tests. RESULTS: At the end of phase I (one year) both groups (control and experimental) achieved significantly higher work rate and reduction in oxygen consumption per unit work. There was a significant reduction in blood lactate in the experimental group, at rest. At t+he end of phase II (two years), the oxygen consumption per unit work was found to be significantly reduced and the work rate significantly increased in the experimental group. Blood lactate decreased significantly at rest in the experimental group only.

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Flexibility adn Cognition

Oken, B., Zaidel, D., Kishiyama, S., Flegal, K., Dehen, C., Haas, M., Kraemer, D., Lawrence, J. & Leyva, J. (2006). Randomized, controlled, six-month trial of yoga in healthy seniors: effects on cognition and quality of life. Alternative Therapy Health Medicine, 12, 40-7.

The yoga intervention produced improvements in physical measures (eg, timed 1-legged standing, forward flexibility) as well as a number of quality-of-life measures related to sense of well-being and energy and fatigue compared to controls.

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Headache

Latha, D & Kaliappan, K. V. (1992). Efficacy of yoga therapy in the management of headaches. Journal of Indian Psychology 10, 41-47.

METHOD: The effect of yoga was investigated as a treatment for migraine and tension headaches in 20 patients. Ss were randomly assigned to 4 months of yoga therapy and no treatment control conditions. Ss in both groups were assessed for headache activity (in terms of frequency, duration, and intensity), sources of stress, coping patterns, and somatic symptoms before and after the therapeutic intervention. RESULTS: Reduction occurred in headache activity, medication intake, symptoms, and stress perception for the yoga group. They also showed improved coping behavior.

 

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Heart Rate

Schell, F. J., Allolio, B., & Schonecke, O. W. (1994). Physiological and psychological effects of Hatha-Yoga exercise in healthy women. International Journal of Psychosomatics 41, 46-52.

METHOD: Heart rate, blood pressure, and the hormones cortisol, prolactin and growth hormone were measured in a yoga group and a control group of young female volunteers reading in a comfortable position during the experimental period. RESULTS: The yoga group had decreased heartrate during yoga. The yoga group had higher scores on life satisfaction and lower scores on excitability, aggressiveness, openness, emotionality and somatic complaints and coping with stress and mood by the end of the experiment. The yoga group also had higher scores on high spirits and extravertedness.

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Hypertension

Murugesan R., Govindarajulu, N., & Bera, TK. (2000). Effect of selected yogic practices on the management of hypertension. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology. 44, 207-10.

METHOD: Thirty three hypertensives, were assessed on systolic and diastolic blood pressure, pulse rate and body weight. The subjects were randomly assigned to three groups: a yoga group, a group who received medical treatment by the physician and a control group. Yoga was offered in the morning and in the evening for 1 hr/session for 11-weeks. Medical treatment comprised drug intake every day for the experimental period. RESULTS: The result of pre-post test revealed that both the treatment stimuli (i.e., yoga and drug) were effective in controlling the measures of hypertension.

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Patel, C. and North, W. R. (1975). Randomised controlled trial of yoga and bio-feedback in management of hypertension. Lancet 2, 93-95.

METHOD: 34 hypertensive patients were assigned at random either to six weeks of yoga methods with biofeedback or to general relaxation. RESULTS: Both groups showed a reduction in blood-pressure although the decrease was significantly greater for the yoga group. The control group was then trained in yoga relaxation and their blood-pressure fell to that of the other group (now used as controls).

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Insomnia

Khalsa, S.B. (2004). Treatment of chronic insomnia with yoga: a preliminary study with sleep-wake diaries. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 29, 269-78.

METHOD: A simple daily yoga treatment was evaluated in a chronic insomnia population consisting of sleep-onset and/or sleep-maintenance insomnia and primary or secondary insomnia. Participants maintained sleep-wake diaries during a pretreatment 2-week baseline and a subsequent 8-week intervention, in which they practiced the treatment on their own following a single in-person training session with subsequent brief in-person and telephone follow-ups. RESULTS: Improvements were noted in sleep efficiency, total sleep time, total wake time, sleep onset latency, wake time after sleep onset, number of awakenings, and sleep quality measures based on sleep-wake diary entries and averaged in 2-week intervals.

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Manjunath, N.K. & Telles, S. (2005). Influence of Yoga and Ayurveda on self-rated sleep in a geriatric population. Indian J Med Res, 121, 683-90.

METHOD: Of the 120 residents from a home for the aged, 69 were stratified based on age and randomly allocated to three groups i.e., Yoga (physical postures, relaxation techniques, voluntarily regulated breathing and lectures on yoga philosophy), Ayurveda (a herbal preparation), and Wait-list control (no intervention). RESULTS: The Yoga group showed a significant decrease in the time taken to fall asleep, an increase in the total number of hours slept and in the feeling of being rested in the morning based on a rating scale after six months.

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Low Back Pain

Sherman, K.J., Cherkin, D.C., Erro, J., Miglioretti, D.L. & Deyo, R.A. (2005). Comparing yoga, exercise, and a self-care book for chronic low back pain: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med, 143, 118.

METHOD: 101 adults with chronic low back pain were given 12-week sessions of yoga or conventional therapeutic exercise classes or a self-care book. RESULTS: Back-related function in the yoga group was superior to the book and exercise groups at 12 weeks and at 26 weeks.

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Williams, K.A., Petronis, J., Smith, D., Goodrich, D., Wu, J., Ravi, N., Doyle, E.J. Jr., Gregory-Juckett, R., Munoz-Kolar, M., Gross, R. & Steinberg, L. (2005). Effect of Iyengar yoga therapy for chronic low back pain. . Pain, 115, 107-17.

METHOD: A randomized control trial was conducted in subjects with non-specific chronic low back pain comparing Iyengar yoga therapy to an educational control group. Both programs were 16 weeks long. RESULTS: Analyses revealed significant reductions in pain intensity (64%), functional disability (77%) and pain medication usage (88%) in the yoga group at the post and 3-month follow-up assessments.

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Migraine

John, P., Sharma, N., Sharma, C. & Kankane, A. (2007). Effectiveness of yoga therapy in the treatment of migraine without aura: a randomized controlled trial. Headache, 47, 654-61.

METHOD: Seventy-two patients with migraine without aura were randomly assigned to yoga therapy or self-care group for 3 months. Primary outcomes were headache frequency (headache diary), severity of migraine, and pain component (McGill pain questionnaire). Secondary outcomes were anxiety and depression (Hospital anxiety depression scale), medication score. RESULTS: After adjustment for baseline values, the subjects' complaints related to headache intensity, frequency, pain rating index, affective pain rating index, total pain rating index, anxiety and depression scores, symptomatic medication use were significantly lower in the yoga group compared to the self-care group.

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Mental retardation

Uma, K., Nagendra, H. R., Nagarathna, R., Vaidehi, S., & Seethalakshmi, R. (1989). The integrated approach of yoga: a therapeutic tool for mentally retarded children: a one-year controlled study. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 33, 415-421.

METHOD: Ninety children with mental retardation of mild, moderate and severe degree were selected for the study. Forty-five children experienced yoga for one academic year (5 h in every week) including breathing exercises and meditation. RESULTS: Significant improvement in IQ and social adaptation parameters occurred in the yoga group as compared to the control group.

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Mood

Berger, B. G. & Owen, D. R. (1992). Mood alteration with yoga and swimming: aerobic exercise may not be necessary. Perceptual & Motor Skills 75, 1331-1343.

METHOD: College students (N = 87) in two swimming classes, a yoga class, and a lecture-control class completed mood and personality inventories before and after class on three occasions. RESULTS: Both the yoga and the swimmers groups reported greater decreases in scores on Anxiety, Confusion, Tension, and Depression than the control group.

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Wood, C. (1993). Mood change and perceptions of vitality: a comparison of the effects of relaxation, visualization and yoga. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 86, 254-258.

METHOD: Effects of relaxation, visualization and yogic breathing and stretch were assessed on perceptions of physical and mental energy and on positive and negative mood states in a group of 71 normal volunteers. RESULTS: Stretching produced a significantly greater increase in perceptions of mental and physical energy and feelings of alertness and enthusiasm than the other two procedures. Relaxation made subjects significantly more sleepy and sluggish immediately after the session than stretching. Visualization made them more sluggish but less content than stretching and more upset than relaxation after the second session.

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Oxygen Consumption

Sarang, P. & Telles, S. (2006). Oxygen consumption and respiration during and after two yoga relaxation techniques. Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback, 31, 143-53.

Oxygen consumption decreased by 19.3 percent below baseline values after CM. combination of yoga postures with supine rest (in CM) reduces the oxygen consumption more than resting supine alone does.

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Pancreatitis

Sarren, S., Kumari, V., Gajebasia, K. & Gajebasia, N. (2007). Yoga: a tool for improving the quality of life in chronic pancreatitis. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 13, 391-7.

METHODS: The patients were randomized to two groups. The control group continued their usual care as directed by their physicians. Patients in the yoga group, in addition, received biweekly yoga sessions for 12 wk. The patients' demographic and health behaviour variables were assessed before and after the yoga programme using Medical Outcomes Short Form (SF-36) for quality of life, Profile of Mood States for assessing mood and Symptoms of Stress Inventory for measuring stress. RESULTS: Thirty patients were randomized to the yoga group and 30 to the control group. Significant improvements were seen in overall quality of life, symptoms of stress, mood changes, alcohol dependence and appetite after the 12 wk period apart from the general feeling of well-being and desire to continue with the programme in future in the yoga group, while there was no difference in the control group.

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Physiology

Baldwin, M. C (1999). Psychological and physiological influences of Hatha Yoga training on healthy, exercising adults. (yoga, stress, wellness). Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences 60, 1031.

METHOD: The purpose of this study was to explore the psychological and physiological differences between adult exercisers who added a weekly yoga class to their regular exercise program and those who did not. Subjects were pre tested and post tested for mood state, stress response, recovery heart rate, and spinal/hamstring flexibilty. Over a period of eight weeks, subjects in both groups continued their normal exercise habits and maintained exercise logs. Subjects in the Yoga Group added a weekly yoga class. Subjects in the Control Group received a yoga class at a later time. At the end of eight weeks, exercise logs were collected and post tests were conducted. RESULTS: The results suggested: (1) more positive mood change in the Yoga Group over eight weeks, (2) more immediate positive affect from yoga than from cardiovascular or resistance training activities, (3) more compliance with yoga than with cardiovascular or resistance training activities, (4) comparable perceived exertion ratings for 'moderate' Hatha Yoga and routine aerobic exercise, (5) an 8% gain in spinal and hamstring flexibility in the Yoga Group over eight weeks, and (6) decreased vulnerability to stress in the Yoga Group, at the same time that sources of stress for that group increased.

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Pregnancy

Narendran, S., Nagarathna, R., Narendran, V., Gunasheela, S. & Nagendra, H.R. Efficacy of yoga on pregnancy outcome. (2005). J Altern Complement Med, 11, 237-44.

METHOD: Three hundred thirty five women attending antenatal clinics were enrolled between 18 and 20 weeks of pregnancy in a prospective, matched, observational study. Women were matched for age, parity, body weight, and Doppler velocimetry scores of umbilical and uterine arteries. Yoga practices, including physical postures, breathing, and meditation were practiced by the yoga group one hour daily, from the date of entry into the study until delivery. The control group walked 30 minutes twice a day during the study period. RESULTS: The number of babies with birth weight > or = 2500 grams was significantly higher in the yoga group. Preterm labor was significantly lower in the yoga group. Complications such as isolated intrauterine growth retardation and pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH) with associated IUGR were also significantly lower in the yoga group. There were no significant adverse effects noted in the yoga group.

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Pulmonary function

 

Birkel D. A. & Edgren L. (2000). Hatha yoga: improved vital capacity of college students. Alternative Therapies in Health & Medicine 6, 55-63.

METHOD: To determine the effects of yoga postures and breathing exercises on vital capacity, researchers measured vital capacity using the Spiropet spiromete. Vital capacity determinants were taken near the beginning and end of two 17-week semesters. 89 men and 198 women were taught yoga poses, breathing techniques, and relaxation in two 50-minute class meetings for 15 weeks. RESULTS: The study showed a significant improvement in vital capacity across all categories over time.

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Makwana, K., Khirwadkar, N., & Gupta, H. C. (1988). Effect of short term yoga practice on ventilatory function tests. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 32, 202-208.

METHOD: Twenty five normal male volunteers undergoing a ten week yoga course were assessed by ventilatory function tests. RESULTS: The observations recorded at the end of ten weeks of the course showed improved ventilatory functions in the form of lowered respiratory rate, increased forced vital capacity, FEV1, maximum breathing capacity and breath holding time, while tidal volume and %FEV1, did not reveal any significant change.

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Malhotra, V., et al. (2002).Study of yoga asanas in assessment of pulmonary function in NIDDM patients. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 46(3):313-20.

METHOD: The present study was conducted with twenty four type 2 diabetic patients. These middle-aged subjects were type II diabetics on antihyperglycaemic and a dietary regimen. Training in yoga asanas occurred 30-40 min/day for 40 days.RESULTS: There was a significant decrease in fasting blood glucose levels. The postprandial blood glucose levels also decreased. The FEV1, FVC, PEFR, MVV increased significantly.

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Rai, L., Ram, K., Kant, U., Madan, S. K., & Sharma, S. K. (1994). Energy expenditure and ventilatory responses during Siddhasana--a yogic seated posture. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 38, 29-33.

METHOD: Various cardio-ventilatory responses were studied in states of the horizontal supine, chair-sitting and Siddhasana (a yoga seated posture). RESULTS: Sitting in the yoga posture was characterised by greater minute ventilation, larger tidal volume, higher oxygen consumption, greater CO2 elimination, higher heartrate frequency, greater oxygen pulse compared with other two postures.

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Spicuzza L. Gabutti A. Porta C. Montano N., & Bernardi L. (2000). Yoga and chemoreflex response to hypoxia and hypercapnia. Lancet 356, 1495-6.

METHOD : This study assessed whether chemoreflex sensitivity could be affected by the practice of yoga, and whether it was specifically because of a slow breathing rate obtained during yoga or as a general consequence of yoga. RESULTS: Slow breathing rate per se substantially reduced chemoreflex sensitivity, but long-term yoga practice was responsible for a generalised reduction in chemoreflex.

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Visweswaraiah, N. & Telles, S. (2004). Randomized trial of yoga as a complementary therapy for pulmonary tuberculosis. Respirology, 9, 96-101.

METHOD: A total of 1009 pulmonary tuberculosis patients were screened and 73 were alternately allocated to yoga or breath awareness groups. RESULTS: At the end of 2 months, the yoga group showed a significant reduction in symptom scores, and an increase in weight, FVC and FEV(1). The breath awareness group also showed a significant reduction in symptom scores, and an increase in weight and FEV(1). Significantly more patients in the yoga group showed sputum conversion based on microscopy on days 30 and 45 compared to the breath awareness group. Improvement in the radiographic picture occurred in 16/25 of the yoga group compared to 3/22 of the breath awareness group on day 60. The improved level of infection, radiographic picture, FVC, weight gain and reduced symptoms in the yoga group suggest a complementary role for yoga in the management of pulmonary tuberculosis.

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Review

Khalsa, S.B. (2004). Yoga as a therapeutic intervention: a bibliometric analysis of published research studies. Indian Journal Physiology and Pharmacology., 48, 269-85.

REVIEW: Although yoga is historically a spiritual discipline, it has also been used clinically as a therapeutic intervention. A bibliometric analysis on the biomedical journal literature involving research on the clinical application of yoga has revealed an increase in publication frequency over the past 3 decades with a substantial and growing use of randomized controlled trials. Types of medical conditions have included psychopathological (e.g. depression, anxiety), cardiovascular (e.g. hypertension, heart disease), respiratory (e.g. asthma), diabetes and a variety of others. A majority of this research has been conducted by Indian investigators and published in Indian journals, particularly yoga specialty journals, although recent trends indicate increasing contributions from investigators in the U.S. and England. Yoga therapy is a relatively novel and emerging clinical discipline within the broad category of mind-body medicine, whose growth is consistent with the burgeoning popularity of yoga in the West and the increasing worldwide use of alternative medicine.

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Runners

Donohue, B., Miller, A., Beisecker, M., Houser, D., Valdez, R., Tiller, S. & Taymar, T. (2006). Effects of a brief yoga exercises and motivational preparatory interventions in distance runners: results of a controlled trial. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40, 60-3.

Participants assigned to yoga exercises showed significant improvements in running performance

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Steadiness

Telles, S., Hanumanthaiah, B., Nagarathna, R., & Nagendra, H. R. (1993). Improvement in static motor performance following yogic training of school children. Perceptual & Motor Skills 76, 1264-1266.

METHOD: Two groups of 45 children each, whose ages ranged from 9 to 13 years, were assessed on a steadiness test, at the beginning and again at the end of a 10-day period during which one group received training in yoga, while the other group did not. The steadiness test required insertion of and holding for 15 sec. a metal stylus without touching the sides of holes of decreasing sizes in a metal plate. The contacts were counted as 'errors'. During the 10-day period, one group (the 'Yoga' group) received training in special physical postures (asanas), voluntary regulation of breathing (Pranayama), maintenance of silence, as well as visual focusing exercises (tratakas) and games to improve the attention span and memory. The other group (control) carried out their usual routine. RESULTS: After 10 days, the 'Yoga' group showed a significant improvement.

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Sleep

Manjunath, N. & Telles, S. (2005). Influence of Yoga and Ayurveda on self-rated sleep in a geriatric population. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 121, 683-90.

METHOD: The present study was designed to compare the effects of Yoga and Ayurveda on the self-rated sleep in a geriatric population. 69 elderly were randomly assigned to three groups i.e., Yoga, Ayurveda (a herbal preparation), and Wait-list control (no intervention). The groups were evaluated for self-assessment of sleep over a one week period at baseline, and after three and six months of the respective interventions. RESULTS: The Yoga group showed a significant decrease in the time taken to fall asleep (approximate group average decrease: 10 min), an increase in the total number of hours slept and in the feeling of being rested in the morning based on a rating scale after six months. The other groups showed no significant change.

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Michalsen, A., Grossman, P., Acil, A., Langhorst, J., Ludtke, R., Esch, T., Stefano, G.B. & Dobos, G.J. (2005). Rapid stress reduction and anxiolysis among distressed women as a consequence of a three-month intensive yoga program. Medicine and Science Monitoring, 11, CR555-561

METHODS: A study was conducted on 24 self-referred female subjects who perceived themselves as emotionally distressed. Subjects were offered participation in one of two 3-month yoga programs. Group 1 participated in the first class and group 2 served as a waiting list control. During the yoga course, subjects attended two-weekly 90-min yoga classes. Outcome was assessed on entry and after 3 months by Cohen Perceived Stress Scale, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Profile of Mood States, CESD-Depression Scale, Bf-S/Bf-S' Well-Being Scales, Freiburg Complaint List and ratings of physical well-being. Salivary cortisol levels were measured before and after an evening yoga class in a second sample. RESULTS: Compared to waiting-list, women who participated in the yoga-training demonstrated significant improvements in perceived stress, State and Trait Anxiety, well-being, vigor, fatigue and depression. Physical well-being also increased, and those subjects suffering from headache or back pain reported marked pain relief. Salivary cortisol decreased significantly after participation in a yoga class.

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Stress

Michalsen, A., Grossman, P., Acil, A., Langhorst, J., Ludtke, R., Esch, T., Stefano, G.B. & Dobos GJ. (2005). Rapid stress reduction and anxiolysis among distressed women as a consequence of a three-month intensive yoga program. Med Sci Monit, 11, 555-561.

METHOD: A controlled prospective non-randomized study was conducted in 24 self-referred female subjects who perceived themselves as emotionally distressed. During the yoga course, subjects attended two-weekly 90-min Iyengar yoga classes. RESULTS: Compared to the waiting-list women, those who participated in the yoga-training demonstrated significant improvements in perceived stress, State and Trait Anxiety, well-being, vigor, fatigue and depression. Physical well-being also increased, and those subjects suffering from headache or back pain reported marked pain relief. Salivary cortisol decreased significantly after participation in a yoga class.

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Weight Gain

Kristal, A., Littman, A., Benitez, D. & White, E. (2005). Yoga practice is associated with attenuated weight gain in healthy, middle-aged men and women. Alternative Therapy Health Medicine, 11, 28-33.

Yoga practice for four or more years was associated with a 3.1-lb lower weight gain among normal weight participants and an 18.5-lb lower weight gain among overweight participants.