Following a month of two chair massages per week, the
massaged adolescents became less aggressive.
Diego, M., Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Shaw, J., Rothe, E., Castellanos,
D., & Mesner, L. (2002). Aggressive adolescents benefit from massage
therapy. Adolescence, 37, 597-607.
__________
Touching peers during conversations in McDonalds Restaurants
occurred more frequently in Paris than in Miami. In contrast, self-touching
and aggressive behavior occurred more frequently among adolescent peers
in Miami than in Paris.
Field, T. (1999). American adolescents touch each other less and are more
aggressive toward their peers as compared with French adolescents. Adolescence,
34, 753-758.
____________________________________________________________________
Anorexia
Massage therapy reduced anxiety, depressed mood, salivary
cortisol (stress hormone) levels and body dissatisfaction and increased
dopamine levels in women with anorexia.
Hart, S., Field, T. Hernandez-Reif, M., Nearing, G., Shaw, S., Schanberg,
S., & Kuhn, C. (2001). Anorexia symptoms are reduced by massage therapy.
Eating Disorders, 9, 289-299.
____________________________________________________________________
Aromatherapy
Adults exposed to rosemary showed decreased frontal alpha
and beta power, suggesting increased alertness. They also had lower anxiety
levels and performed math computations faster. Adults exposed to lavender
showed increased beta power, suggesting increased relaxation. They performed
math computations not only faster but also with fewer errors and had less
depressed mood.
Diego, M.A., Jones, N.A., Field, T., & Hernandez-Reif, M. (1998).
Aromatherapy reduces anxiety and enhances EEG patterns associated with
positive mood and alertness. International Journal of Neuroscience,
96, 217-224.
_________
Frontal EEG asymmetry was examined in adults and infants exposed to lavender
and rosemary by reanalyzing previously published data, using techniques
different from those utilized in the original two studies. Results from
Study 1 on 39 adults revealed significant EEG shifting in the lavender
group to greater relative left frontal EEG activation (associated with
greater approach behavior and less depressed affect).Study 2 on 27 full-term
newborns revealed no significant shifts in asymmetry in either aroma group.
However, when the aroma groups were collapsed, the right frontal EEG group
exhibited significant shifting to left frontal EEG activation.
Sanders,C., Diego, M., Fernandez, M., Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., and
Roca, A. (2002) EEG asymmetry responses to lavender and rosemary aromas
in adults and infants. International Journal of Neuroscience, 112,1305-1320
_________
This study investigated whether exposure to lavender or rosemary would
change EEG activity and behavior in infants of depressed and non-depressed
mothers. Twenty newborns were exposed rosemary or lavender and their EEG
was recorded for 2-minutes each at baseline and during odor exposure.
Results revealed that the groups did not differ at baseline and that the
two odors did not differentially affect the EEG. However, the infants
of depressed mothers showed increased relative left frontal EEG activation
while infants of non-depressed mothers showed increased relative right
frontal EEG activation from baseline to the odor exposure phase.
Fernandez,M., Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., Sanders, C., Diego, M., and
Roca, A. (2004) EEG during lavender and rosemary exposure in infants of
depressed and non-depressed mothers.Infant Behavior and Development,
27, 91-100
_________
A lavender fragrance blend had a significant transient effect of improving
mood, making people feel more relaxed, and perform math computation faster.
The data suggest that a specific cosmetic fragrance can have a significant
role in enhancing relaxation. The lavender fragrance blend had a significant
transient effect of improving mood, making people feel more relaxed, and
performing the math computation faster. The self-report and EEG and heart
rate data are consistent with relaxation profiles during other sensory
stimuli such as massage and music, as reported in the literature.
Field, T., Diego, M., Hernandez-Reif, M., Cisneros, W., Feijo, L., Vera,
Y., & Gil, K. (2005). Lavender fragrance cleansing gel effects on
relaxation. International Journal of Neuroscience, 115, 207-222.
______________________________________________________________________________
Arthritis
Children with mild to moderate juvenile rheumatoid arthritis were massaged by their parents 15 minutes a day for 30 days (and a control group engaged in relaxation therapy). The children’s anxiety and stress hormone (cortisol) levels were immediately decreased by the massage, and over the 30-day period their pain decreased on self-reports, parent reports, and their physician’s reports.
Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Seligman, S., Krasnegor,
J. & Sunshine, W. (1997). Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: Benefits
from massage therapy. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 22, 607-617.
__________________________________________________________________________
Asthma
This study showed positive effects of parents massaging
their asthmatic children including increased peak air flow, improved pulmonary
functions, less anxiety and reduced stress hormone (cortisol) in the children.
Parental anxiety also decreased.
Field, T., Henteleff, T., Hernandez-Reif M., Martinez, E., Mavunda, K.,
Kuhn C., & Schanberg S. (1998). Children with asthma have improved
pulmonary functions after massage therapy. Journal of Pediatrics,
132, 854-858.
____________________________________________________________________
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Adolescents with ADHD displayed less anxiety, daydreaming behaviors, inappropriate
emotions and hyperactivity, and their conduct improved after participating
in Tai Chi classes.
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., & Thimas, E. (2001). Attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder: benefits from Tai Chi. Journal of Bodywork
and Movement Therapies, 5, 120-123.
__________
Adolescents with ADHD rated themselves as happier and
were observed to fidget less after massage sessions. Also, teachers rated
adolescents receiving massage as less hyperactive and as spending more
time on-task.
Field, T., Quintino, O. & Hernandez-Reif, M., & Koslovsky, G.
(1998). Adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder benefit
from massage therapy. Adolescence, 33, 103-108.
__________
The present study involved 30 children and adolescents between the ages of 7 and 18 diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The children were randomly assigned to a wait-list control and a massage group. Mood state improved for the massage but not the control group based on smiley face and thermometer scales. The massage group also improved in classroom behavior in the areas of the Conners Teacher Rating Scales on anxiety, daydreaming and hyperactivity.
Khilnani, S., Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., & Schanberg, S. (2003). Massage therapy improves mood and behavior of students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Adolescence, 38, 623-38.
____________________________________________________________________
Autism
This study investigated the effects of touch therapy on three problems commonly associated with autism including inattentiveness (off-task behavior), touch aversion, and withdrawal. Results showed that touch aversion decreased in both the touch therapy and the touch control group, off task behavior decreased in both groups, orienting to irrelevant sounds decreased in both groups, but significantly more in the touch therapy group, and stereotypic behaviors decreased in both groups but significantly more in the touch therapy group.
Field, T., Lasko, D., Mundy, P., Henteleff, T., Talpins, S., & Dowling, M. (1986). Autistic children's attentiveness and responsitivity improved after touch therapy. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27, 329-334.
__________
Children in the massage group exhibited less stereotypic
behavior and showed more on-task and social relatedness behavior during
play observations at school, and they experienced fewer sleep problems
at home.
Escalona, A., Field, T., Singer-Strunck, R., Cullen, C., & Hartshorn,
K. (2001). Brief report: improvements in the behavior of children with
autism following massage therapy. Journal of Autism & Developmental
Disorders, 31, 513-516.
_________
Thirty-eight children with autism were given movement
therapy in small groups led by a trained movement therapist. After two
months of biweekly sessions, the children spent less time wandering, more
time showing on-task behavior, less time showing negative responses to
being touched, and less time resisting the teacher than those in the control
group.
Hartshorn,K., Olds, L., Field, T., Delage, J., Cullen, C. and Escalona,
A. (2001) Creative movement therapy benefits children with autism. Early
Child and Development and Care,166,1-5.
____________________________________________________________________
Bottle Feeding on Breast-Like Nipples
Infants showed fewer stress behaviors and had greater
vagal activity and more organized feeding patterns during bottle feedings
using nipples that are similar to breast nipples.
Field, T, Schanberg, S., Davalos, M. & Malphurs, J. (1997). Bottlefeeding
with a breast-like nipple. Early Child Development and Care, 132,
57-63.
____________________________________________________________________
Breast Cancer
Massage therapy reduced anxiety and depression and improved
immune function including increased natural killer cell number in women
with breast cancer.
Hernandez-Reif, M., Ironsor, G., Field, T., Hurley, J., Katz, G., Diego,
M., Weiss, S., Fletcher, MA., Shanberg, S and Kuhn, C. (2003) Breast cancer
patients have improve immune and neuroendocrine function following massage
therapy.Journal of Psychosomatic Reseach, 57,45-52.
____________
Women diagnosed with breast cancer received massage therapy
or practiced progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) or received standard
treatment. Dopamine levels, Natural Killer cells, and lymphocytes increased
from the first to the last day of the study for the massage therapy group.
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., Ironson, G., Beutler, J., Vera, Y., Hurley,
J., Fletcher, M., Schanberg, S., Kuhn, S., & Fraser, M. (2005). Natural
killer cells and lymphocytes are increased in women with breast cancer
following massage therapy. International Journal of Neuroscience,115,
495-510.
____________________________________________________________________
Bulimia
Bulimic adolescent girls received massage therapy 2 times
a week for 5 weeks. Effects included an improved body image, decreased
depression and anxiety symptoms, decreased cortisol levels and increased
dopamine and serotonin levels.
Field, T., Shanberg, S., Kuhn, C., Fierro, K., Henteleff, T., Mueller,
C., Yando, R. & Burman, I. (1998). Bulimic adolescents benefit from
massage therapy. Adolescence, 33, 555-563.
____________________________________________________________________
Burn
Massage therapy sessions given prior to debridement (skin
brushing) decreased depression and anger, and the subjects appeared less
anxious during behavior observations and reported less pain. Lower pulse
and cortisol suggested lower stress levels.
Field, T., Peck, M., Krugman, S., Tuchel, T., Schanberg, S., Kuhn, C.,
& Burman, I.(1998). Burn injuries benefit from massage therapy. Journal
of Burn Care and Rehabilitation, 19, 241-244.
_______________
Massage therapy given prior to dressing young children's
severe body burns decreased distress behaviors. Nurses also reported greater
ease in completing the dressing change procedure for the children in the
massage group.
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., Largie, S., Hart, S., Redzepi, M., Nierenberg,
B., & Peck, M. (2001). Childrens' distress during burn treatment is
reduced by massage therapy. Journal of Burn Care and Rehabilitation,
22, 191-195.
_______________
Massage therapy given to burn patients reduced itching,
pain, and anxiety and improved mood immediately after the first and last
therapy sessions, and the ratings on these measures improved from the
first day to the last day of the study.
Field, T., Peck, M., Hernandez-Reif, M., Krugman, S., Burman, I., &
Ozment-Schenck, L. (2000). Postburn itching, pain, and psychological symptoms
are reduced with massage therapy. Journal of Burn Care & Rehabilitation,
21, 189-193.
____________________________________________________________________________
A daily self-massage for stretching tendons alleviated
pain and increased nerve conducting velocity following one month in adults
with carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS).
Field, T.., Diego, M., Cullen, C., Hartsorn, K., Gruskin, A., Hernandez-Reif,
M. and Sunshine, W. (2004). Carpal Tunnel Syndrome symptons are lessened
fallowing massage therapy. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies,8,
9-14.
____________________________________________________________________
Carrying Position
Infants were carried by their mothers in soft infant
carriers in facing inward and facing outward positions. In the facing
inward position they slept more and in the facing outward position they
were more active and interactive.
Field, T., Malphurs, J., Carraway, K. & Pelaez-Nogueras, M. (1996).
Carrying position influences infant behavior. Early Child Development
and Care, 121, 49-54.
____________________________________________________________________
Cerebral Palsy
Massage therapy helped children with CP reduce spasticity,
gain more muscle flexibility, and motor function and have more positive
social interaction.
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field,T., Largie, S., Diego, M., Manigat, N., Seonares,
J., Bornstein, J and Waldman, R. (2005). Cerebral Palsy Symptoms in children
decreased following massage therapy. Early Child Development and Care,
175, 445-456
____________________________________________________________________
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
Immediately following massage therapy, depressed mood,
anxiety and stress hormone (cortisol) levels were reduced. Following 10
days of massage therapy, fatigue related symptoms, particularly anxiety
and somatic symptoms, were reduced, as were depression, difficulty sleeping
and pain. Stress hormone (cortisol) also decreased and dopamine increased.
Field, T, Sunshine, W., Hernandez-Reif, M., Quintino, O., Schanberg, S.,
Kuhn, C., & Burman, I. (1997). Chronic fatigue syndrome: Massage therapy
effects on depression and somatic symptoms in chronic fatigue syndrome.
Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, 3, 43-51.
____________________________________________________________________
Cocaine Exposed Newborns
Cocaine exposed newborns had fewer postnatal complications
and showed increased weight gain, and better performance on the Brazelton
Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale (particularly on the motor scale),
and less stress behaviors following 10 days of massage.
Scafidi, F., Field, T., Wheeden, A., Schanberg, S., Kuhn, C., Symanski,
R., Zimmerman, E., & Bandstra, E. S. (1996). Cocaine exposed preterm
neonates show behavioral and hormonal differences. Pediatrics, 97,
851-855.
_____________
Cocaine-exposed preterm neonates were randomly assigned
to a massage therapy or a control group as soon as they were considered
medically stable. The treatment group received massages for three 15-minute
periods over 3 consecutive hours for a 10-day period. Findings suggested
that the massaged infants (1) averaged 28% greater weight gain per day,
(2) showed significantly fewer postnatal complications and stress behaviors,
and (3) demonstrated more mature motor behaviors on the Brazelton examination.
Wheeden, A., Scafidi, F.A., Field, T., Ironson, G., Valdeon, C. &
Bandstra, E. (1993). Massage effects on cocaine-exposed preterm neonates.
Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 14, 318-322.
____________________________________________________________________
Cognition (Learning)
Four-month-old infants were given either 8 minutes of massage, play,
or no stimulation prior to an audiovisual habituation task. Infants who
received massage showed response recovery from habituation during test
trials, whereas those in the other two conditions did not.
Cigales, M., Field, T., Lundy, B., Cuadra, A., Hart, S. (1997). Massage
enhances recovery from habituation in normal infants. Infant Behavior
and Development, 20, 29-34.
___________________
Preschoolers
were given WPPSI subtests before and after receiving a 15-minute massage
or spending 15-minutes reading stories with an experimenter. Performance
on the Block Design improved following massage, and accuracy was greater
on the Animal Pegs in the massage group.
Hart, S., Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., & Lundy, B. (1998). Preschoolers’cognitive
performance improves following massage. Early Child Development &
Care, 143, 59-64.
_______________________________________________________________________________
Cystic Fibrosis
Children receiving daily bedtime massages from their
parents reported being less anxious, and their mood and peak air flow
readings improved.
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., Krasnegor, J., & Martinez, E. (1999).
Cystic fibrosis symptoms are reduced with massage therapy intervention.
Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 24, 183-189.
____________________________________________________________________
Massage therapy improved range of motion, mood, and performance
(including balance and posture) and decreased stress hormone (cortisol)
after one month of twice weekly massage therapy.
Leivadi, S., Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., O'Rourke, M., D'Arienzo, S.,
Lewis, D., Del Pino, N., Schanberg, S., & Kuhn, C. (1999). Massage
therapy and relaxation effects on university dance students. Journal
of Dance Medicine & Science, 3, 108-112.
____________________________________________________________________
Depressed Adolescents
A 30-minute back massage was given daily for a 5-day
period to hospitalized depressed and adjustment disorder children and
adolescents. Compared with a control group who viewed relaxing videotapes,
the massaged subjects were less depressed and anxious and had lower saliva
cortisol levels after the massage.
Field, T., Morrow, C., Valdeon, C., Larson, S., Kuhn, C., & Schanberg,
S.(1992). Massage reduces depression and anxiety in child and adolescent
psychiatric patients. Journal of the American Academy of Child &
Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 125-131.
____________
Depressed adolescent mothers received ten 30-minute sessions
of massage therapy or relaxation therapy over a five-week period. Although
both groups reported lower anxiety following their first and last therapy
sessions, only the massage therapy group showed behavioral and stress
hormone changes including a decrease in anxious behavior, pulse, and salivary
cortisol levels. A decrease in urine cortisol levels suggested lower stress
following the five-week period for the massage therapy group.
Field, T., Grizzle, N., Scafidi, F., & Schanberg, S. (1996). Massage
and relaxation therapies' effects on depressed adolescent mothers. Adolescence,
31, 903-911.
________________________________________________________________________________
Depressed Mothers' EEG Patterns are Changed by Massage and Music Therapy
Brief sessions of massage therapy and music therapy were
noted to shift the EEG of depressed mothers from greater relative right
frontal activation (a pattern associated with depression) to symmetry.
Jones, N., & Field, T. (1999). Right frontal EEG asymmetry is attenuated
by massage and music therapy. Adolescence, 34, 529-534.
Tornek, A., Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Diego, M. and Jones, N.(2003).
Music effects on EEG in intrusive and withdrawn mothers with depressive
symptoms.Psychiatry, 66 (3), 234-243.
____________________________________________________________________
Depressed Mothers' Infants Prefer Touch
Infants showed more eye contact when adults, who were
smiling and cooing, also touched them as compared to infants who received
smiling and cooing without touch.
Pelaez-Nogueras, M., Gewirtz, J.L., Field, T., Cigales, M., Malphurs,
J., Clasky, S., & Sanchez, A. (1996). Infant preference for touch
stimulation in face-to-face interactions. Journal of Applied Developmental
Psychology, 17, 199-213.
____________________________________________________________________
Depressed Mothers' Touching Increases Infants' Positive Affect and Attention
Depressed mothers increased their infant's positive affect
and attentiveness by providing touch stimulation.
Pelaez-Nogueras, M., Field, T., Hossain, Z., & Pickens, J. (1996).
Depressed mothers' touching increases infants' positive affect and attention
in still-face interactions. Child Development, 67, 1780-1792.
____________________________________________________________________
Depressed Mothers Touching Infants
Mothers with depressive symptoms who were more likely
to touch their infants in a negative way were more likely to be classified
as intrusive.
Malphurs, J., Raag, T., Field, T., Pickens, J., & Pelaez-Nogueras,
M. (1996). Touch by intrusive and withdrawn mothers with depressive symptoms.
Early Development and Parenting, 5, 111-115.
____________________________________________________________________
Depressed Mothers Touching Newborns
Mothers with depressed symptoms were compared to mothers
with non-depressed symptoms one day after delivery on how they touched
their newborns following an initial feeding. Depressed mothers touched
their newborns less frequently.
Lundy, B.L., Field, T., Cuadra, A., Nearing, G., Cigales, M. & Hashimoto,
M. (1996). Mothers with depressive symptoms touching their newborns. Early
Development and Parenting, 5, 124-130.
____________________________________________________________________
Depressed Teenage Mothers
Teenage mothers who received massage therapy versus those
who received relaxation therapy were less depressed and less anxious both
by their own report and based on behavior observations. In addition, their
urinary cortisol levels were lower and their serotonin levels were higher,
indicating they were less stressed and less depressed.
Field, T., Grizzle, N., Scafidi, F., & Schanberg, S. (1996). Massage
and relaxation therapies' effects on depressed adolescent mothers. Adolescence,
31, 903-911.
____________________________________________________________________
Dermatitis in Children
Children's affect and activity levels improved as did
all measures of skin condition including less redness, lichenification,
excoriation, and pruritis after massage therapy. Parents' anxiety levels
also decreased.
Schachner, L., Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Duarte, A., & Krasnegor,
J. (1998). Atopic Dermatitis Symptoms Decrease in Children Following Massage
Therapy. Pediatric Dermatology, 15, 390-395.
____________________________________________________________________
Diabetes
Following one month of parents massaging their children
with diabetes, the children's glucose levels decreased to the normal range
and their dietary compliance increased. Also the parents' and children's
anxiety and depression levels decreased.
Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., LaGreca A., Shaw, K., Schanberg, S., &
Kuhn, C. (1997). Massage therapy lowers blood glucose levels in children
with Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Spectrum 10, 237-239.
____________________________________________________________________
Down Syndrome
Infants with Down syndrome improved in muscle tone and
in performance on motor tasks following massage therapy.
Hernandez-Reif, M., Ironson, G., Field, T., Largie, S., Deigo, M., Mora,
D., & Bornstein, J. (2006). Children with Down Syndrome improved in
motor function and muscle tone following massage therapy. Journal
of Early Intervention, 176, 395-410.
____________________________________________________________________
Twenty-six adults were given a chair massage and 24 control
group adults were asked to relax in the massage chair for 15 minutes,
two times per week for five weeks. On the first and last days of the study
they were monitored for EEG before, during and after the sessions. The
massage group exhibited: 1) increased frontal delta power (suggesting
relaxation); 2) decreased frontal alpha and beta power (suggesting enhanced
alertness); 3) increased speed and accuracy on math computations ; 4)
lower anxiety levels; 5) lower salivary cortisol levels; and 6) lower
depression scores at the end of the 5 week period.
Field, T., Ironson, G., Scafidi, F., Nawrocki, T., Gonclaves, A., Burman,
I., Pickens, J., Fox, N., Schanberg, S., & Kuhn, C. (1996). Massage
therapy reduces anxiety and enhances EEG pattern of alertness and math
computations. International Journal of Neuroscience, 86, 197-205.
__________________________________________________________________________
Elderly Retired Volunteers Providing Versus Receiving Massage
Elderly
retired volunteers were assessed after giving infants massage for a month
versus receiving massage for a month themselves. Results were: 1) they
reported less anxiety and fewer depressive symptoms and an improved mood
after giving infants massage; 2) their pulse decreased; 3) their cortisol
levels decreased; and 4) they reported improved self esteem and a better
lifestyle (e.g. fewer doctor visits and more social contacts) after the
one month period. These effects were stronger for giving infants the massages
than receiving massages themselves, suggesting that the massager can benefit
from simply giving massages.
Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Quintino, 0., Schanberg, S. & Kuhn,
C. (1998). Elder retired volunteers benefit from giving massage therapy
to infants. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 17, 229-239.
____________
Senior citizens participated in four, 50-minute movement
therapy sessions over a 2-week period and were compared to senior citizens
in a wait list control group who received the movement sessions only after
the end of the study. The movement therapy participants improved on their
gait, their leg strength increased, and their leg pain significantly decreased.
Hartshorn, K., Delage, J., Field, T., & Olds, L. (2001). Senior citizens
benefit from movement therapy. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Thrapies,
5, 1-5.
____________________________________________________________________
Fathers gave their infants daily massages 15 minutes
prior to bedtime for one month. The fathers in the massage group showed
more optimal interaction behavior with their infant.
Cullen, C., Field, T., Escalona, A., & Hartshorn, K. (2000). Father-infants
interactions are enhanced by massage therapy. Early Child Development
and Care, 164, 41-47.
____________________________________________________________________
Fibromyalgia Syndrome
Massage therapy (as compared to transcutaneous electrical
stimulation) improved sleep patterns and decreased pain, fatigue, anxiety,
depression and cortisol levels in adults with fibromyalgia..
Sunshine, W., Field, T., Schanberg, S., Quintino, O., Fierro, K., Kuhn,
C., Burman, I., and Schanberg, S. (1996). Fibromyalgia benefits from massage
therapy and transcutaneous electrical stimulation. Journal of Clinical
Rheumatology, 2, 18-22.
_________
Fibromyalgia patients slept better (showed lower activity
levels suggesting more deep sleep), and had lower substance P levels and
less pain following a month of biweekly massages.
Field, T., Diego, M., Cullen, C., Hernandez-Reif, M., Sunshine, W., &
Douglas, S. (2002). Fibromyalgia pain and substance P decrease and sleep
improves after massage therapy. Journal of Clinical Rheumatology,
8, 72-76.
Forty patients with fibromyalgia were randomly assigned
to a movement/massage therapy group or a relaxation control group two
times per week for 3 weeks. The movement/massage therapy group showed
decreased depressed mood, state anxiety and regional pain immediately
after the first and last sessions of the study and decreased depressed
mood, state anxiety and regional pain at baseline from the first to the
last session.
Field, T., Delage, J. and Hernandez-Reif, M. (2003). Movement and massage
therapy reduces fibromyalgia pain.Journal of Bodywork annd Movement
Therapies,7, 49-52.
__________
____________________________________________________________________
Food Texture
Infants preferred pureed textures while toddlers and
preschoolers preferred chunky textures. However, when infants were given
experience with more complex textures, they too preferred the chunky textures.
Lundy, B.C., Field, T., Carraway, K., Hart, S., Malphurs, J., Rosenstein,
M., Pelaez-Nogueras, M., Coletta, F., Ott, D.and Hernandez-Reif, M. (1998).
Food texture preferences in infants versus toddlers. Early Child Development
and Care, 146, 69-85.
____________________________________________________________________
Increased weight gain and improved performance on the
Brazelton Newborn Scale (motor and state scales) were experienced by HIV-exposed
newborns who were given massage.
Scafidi, F. & Field, T. (1997). Massage therapy improves behavior
in neonates born to HIV positive mothers. Journal of Pediatric Psychology,
21, 889-897.
____________
Natural killer cells, CD4 cells and CD4/CD8 ratio increased
after one month of massage therapy for adolescents with HIV.
Diego, M.A., Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Shaw, K., Friedman, L., and
Ironson, G. (2001). HIV adolescents show improved immune function following
massage therapy. International Journal of Neuroscience, 106,
35-45.
____________
This study examined massage therapy effects on anxiety
and depression levels and on immune function in HIV adults. In those who
received a 45-minute massage five times weekly for a 1-month period: 1)
anxiety, stress and cortisol levels were significantly reduced; and 2)
natural killer cells and natural killer cell activity increased, suggesting
positive effects on the immune system.
Ironson, G., Field, T., Scafidi, F., Hashimoto, M., Kumar, M., Kumar,
A., Price, A., Goncalves, A., Burman, I., Tetenman, C., Patarca, R., &
Fletcher, M. A. (1996). Massage therapy is associated with enhancement
of the immune system's cytotoxic capacity. International Journal of
Neuroscience 84, 205-218.
____________________________________________________________________
Hypertension
Massage therapy decreased diastolic blood pressure, anxiety
and cortisol (stress hormone) levels in adults with hypertension.
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., Krasnegor, J., Theakston, H., Hossain,
Z., & Burman, I. (2000). High blood pressure and associated symptoms
were reduced by massage therapy. Journal of Bodywork and Movement
Therapies, 4, 31-38.
____________________________________________________________________
Infants who received massage therapy versus those who
were rocked experienced 1) greater daily weight gain; 2) more organized
sleep/wake behaviors; 3) less fussiness; 4) improved sociability and soothability,
5) improved interaction behaviors; and 6) lower cortisol and norepinephrine
and increased serotonin levels.
Field, T., Grizzle, N., Scafidi, F., Abrams, S., & Richardson, S.,
Kuhn, C. and Shanberg, S.(1996). Massage therapy for infants of depressed
mothers. Infant Behavior and Development, 19, 109-114.
____________________________________________________________________
Massaged adults showed 1) decreased frontal EEG alpha
and beta power and increased delta power consistent with enhanced alertness;
2) math problems were completed in significantly less time with significantly
fewer errors after the massage; and 3) anxiety, cortisol (stress hormone)
and job stress levels were lower at the end of the 5 week period.
Field, T., Ironson, G., Scafidi, F., Nawrocki, T., Goncalves, A., Burman,
I., Pickens, J., Fox, N., Schanberg, S., & Kuhn, C. (1996). Massage
therapy reduces anxiety and enhances EEG pattern of alertness and math
computations. International Journal of Neuroscience, 86, 197-205.
____________
Hospital nursing and physician staff members were provided
massage therapy, relaxation therapy and music therapy. These therapies
significantly reduced anxiety, depression and fatigue as well as increased
vigor.
Field, T., Quintino, O., Henteleff, T., Wells-Keife, L., & Delvecchio-Feinberg,
G. (1997). Job stress reduction therapies. Alternative Therapies in
Health and Medicine, 3, 54-56.
____________________________________________________________________
Massage therapy during the first 15 minutes of every hour of labor decreased
anxiety and pain and the need for pain medication. In addition, the massaged
mothers had shorter labor, shorter hospital stay and less depressed mood.
Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Taylor, S., & Quintino, 0., & Burman,
I. (1997). Labor pain is reduced by massage therapy. Journal of Psychosomatic
Obstetrics and Gynecology, 18, 286-291.
____________________________________________________________________
Leukemia
Twenty children with leukemia were provided daily massages by their parents and were compared to a standard treatment control group. Following a month of massage therapy, depressed mood decreased in the children's parents, and the children's white blood cell and neutrophil counts increased.
Field, T., Cullen, C., Diego, M., Hernandez-Reif, M., Sprinz, P., Beebe, K., Kissell, B., & Bango-Sanchez, V. (2001) Leukemia immune changes following massage therapy. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapy, 3, 1-5.
____________________________________________________________________
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., Dieter, J., Swerdlow. & Diego, M., (1998). Migraine headaches were reduced by massage therapy. International Journal of Neuroscience, 96, 1-11.
____________________________________________________________________
Multiple Sclerosis
Massage therapy decreased anxiety and depressed mood,
and improved hand strength, self-esteem, body image and social functioning
in adults with multiple sclerosis.
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., Field, T., & Theakston, H. (1998).
Multiple Sclerosis patients benefit from massage therapy. Journal
of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 2, 168-174.
____________________________________________________________________
Women who had extended and early contact with their newborns
looked at, talked to, and touched their infants more, watched less television,
and talked less on the telephone than mothers with minimal contact with
their infants. These findings suggest that increased postpartum contact
with infants leads not only to more interaction, but also to more touching
as well as touching in more intimate places (face and head), thus highlighting
the value of rooming-in arrangements for mothers and infants.
Prodromidis, M., Field, T., Arendt, R., Singer, L., Yando, R. & Bendell,
D. (1995). Mothers touching newborns: A comparison of rooming-in versus
minimal contact. Birth, 22, 196-200.
____________________________________________________________________
Infants showed fewer stress behaviors (e.g. grimacing
and clenched fists) and lower cortisol levels (stress hormones) following
massage with oil versus massage without oil.
Field, T., Schanberg, S., Davalos, M. & Malphurs, J. (1996). Massage
with oil has more positive effects on newborn infants. Pre and Perinatal
Psychology Journal, 11, 73-78.
____________________________________________________________________
Adults with Parkinson's Disease were assigned to receive
massage therapy or progressive muscle relaxation twice a week for five
weeks. The massage group received higher physician scores on daily living
activities and the participants rated themselves as having improved daily
functioning and less disturbed sleep.
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., Largie, S., Cullen, C., Beutler, J., Sanders,
C. Weiner, W., Rodriguez-Bateman, D., Zelaya, L., Schanberg, S., &
Kuhn, C. (2002). Parkinson's disease symptoms are differentially affected
by massage therapy versus progressive muscle relaxation: A pilot study.
Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 6, 177-182.
____________________________________________________________________
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Massage therapy decreased the anxiety, depression and
stress hormone levels (cortisol) of children who had post-traumatic stress
disorder following Hurricane Andrew. In addition, their drawings became
less depressed.
Field, T., Seligman, S., Scafidi, F., & Schanberg, S. (1996). Alleviating
postraumatic stress in children following Hurricane Andrew. Journal
of Applied Developmental Psychology, 17, 37-50.
Pregnancy
This study showed decreased anxiety and stress hormones
(norepinephrine) during pregnancy and fewer obstetric and postnatal complications
including lower prematurity rates following pregnancy massage.
Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Hart, S., Theakston, H., Schanberg, S.,
Kuhn, C., & Burman, I. (1999). Pregnant women benefit from massage
therapy. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynecology, 19,
31-38.
________
Fetal
activity during midgestation was studied in response to vibratory stimulation
of the mother's abdomen, foot massage, hand massage, or control condition.
The fetuses of mothers who received a 3-minute foot massage showed greater
movement than the control fetuses.
Diego, M., Dieter, J., Field, T., Lecanuet, J., Hernandez-Reif, M., Beutler,
J., Largie, S., Redzepi, M., & Salman, F. (2002). Fetal activity following
vibratory stimulation of the mother's abdomen and foot and hand massage.
Developmental Psychobiology, 41, 396-406.
________
Depressed pregnant women were recruited during the second
trimester of pregnancy and randomly assigned to a massage therapy group,
a progressive muscle relaxation group or a control group that received
standard prenatal care alone. Immediately after the massage therapy sessions
the women reported lower levels of anxiety and depressed mood and less
leg and back pain. By the end of the study the massage group had higher
dopamine and serotonin levels and lower levels of cortisol and norepinephrine.
These changes may have contributed to the reduced fetal activity and the
better neonatal outcome for the massage group (i.e. lesser incidence of
prematurity and low birthweight), as well as their better performance
on the Brazelton Neonatal Behavior Assessment.
Field, T., Diego, M., Hernandez-Reif, M., Schanberg, S., & Kuhn, C.
(2004). Massage therapy effects on depressed pregnant women. Journal
of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology,1-9.
____________________________________________________________________
Premenstrual Symptoms
The mood of women with premenstrual symptoms improved,
and anxiety, pain and water retention symptoms decreased after massage
therapy.
Hernandez-Reif, M., Martinez, A., Field, T., Quintino, O., Hart, S. &
Burman, I. (2000). Premenstrual Syndrome symptoms are relieved by massage
therapy. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynecology, 21,
9-15.
____________________________________________________________________
Preschoolers' Touch
Teachers touching children was rarely observed in infant, toddler and
preschool nurseries. These data were then presented to the teachers along
with examples of appropriate touch, and they were requested to provide
more touching in the classroom. The amount of touching subsequently increased.
Field, T., Harding, J. Soliday, B., Lasko, D., Gonzalez, N. & Valdeon,
C. (1998). Touching in infant, toddler and preschool nurseries. Early
Child Development and Care, 98, 113-120.
____________________________________________________________________
Preschoolers demonstrated less "task" related
touch but more "communication" related touch in their classroom
as compared to the infants and toddlers in their classrooms. Affectionate
touch and aggressive touch was more prevalent among toddlers than other
age children.
Cigales, M., Field, T., Hossain, Z., Pelaez-Nogueras, M. & Gewirtz,
J. (1996). Touch among children at nursery school. Early Child Development
and Care, 126, 101-110.
____________
This study compared a high touch culture (France) and
a low touch culture (U.S.) on preschool playgrounds and at McDonald's
Restaurants in Paris and Miami. Data analyses suggested that preschool
children in Paris were touched more by their mothers and touched each
other more and were less aggressive toward their peers.
Field, T. (1999) Preschoolers in America are touched less and are more
aggressive than preschoolers in France. Early Child Development and
Care, 151, 11-17.
____________________________________________________________________
Pressure
Three types of commonly used massage therapy techniques were assessed:
(1) moderate massage, (2) light massage, or (3) vibratory stimulation
group. Changes in anxiety and stress were assessed, and EEG and EKG were
recorded. Anxiety scores decreased for all groups, but the moderate pressure
massage group reported the greatest decrease in stress.
The
moderate pressure massage group also experienced a decrease in heart rate
and EEG changes including an increase in delta and a decrease in alpha
and beta activity, suggesting a relaxation response. Finally, this group
showed increased positive affect, as indicated by a shift toward left
frontal EEG activation. The light pressure massage group showed increased
arousal, as indicated by decreased delta and increased deta activity and
increased heart rate. The vibratory stimulation group also showed increased
arousal, as indicated by increased heart rate and increased theta, alpha,
and beta activity.
Diego, M.A., Field, T., Sanders, C. & Hernandez-Reif, M. (2004). Massage
therapy of moderate and light pressure and vibrator effects on EEG and
heart rate. International Journal of Neuroscience, 114, 31-44.
__________
This study assessed the effects of moderate and light pressure massage
on the growth and development of young infants. Infants in the moderate-pressure
massage group were more alert while the infants in the light-pressure
massage group were more excitable, agitated, and fussy. The moderate-pressure
massage infants exhibited greater weight gain and a greater increase in
body length.
Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Diego, M., Feijo, L., Vera, Y., & Gil,
K. (2004). Massage therapy by parents improves early growth and development.
Infant Behavior and Development, 27, 435-442.
____________________________________________________________________________
Preterm Infant Stimulation Reviews
Early touch interventions and their effects on high-risk
infants are reviewed.
Field, T. (1986). Interventions for premature infants. Journal of
Pediatrics, 109, 183-191.
___________
Preterm infants who received tactile stimulation showed
greater weight gain. A potential underlying mechanism for the massage/weight
gain relationship is an increase in vagal tone, which in turn increases
food absorption.
Field, T. (1988). Stimulation of preterm infants. Pediatrics in Review,
10, 149-154.
___________
Alleviating Stress in Intensive-Care Neonates: Intensive
care nursery environments and their effects as well as positive tactile
stimulation effects are reviewed.
Field, T. (1987). Alleviating stress in NICU neonates. Journal of
the American Osteopathic Association, 87, 646-650.
__________
Alleviating Stress in Newborns: Stressful effects of intensive care nursery
environments are reviewed including the effects of high-intensity noise,
bright lights, cold, invasive and painful procedures. Touch interventions
were associated with 1) fewer startle responses, 2) decreased need for
ventilation, and 3) fewer clenched fists. The stimulated infants averaged
greater weight gain, were awake and active for a greater period of time
and scored better on the Brazelton Scale.
Field, T. (1990). Alleviating stress in newborn infants in the intensive
care unit. Perinatology, 17,1-9.
____________
In a review of preterm infant massage studies, massage
therapy was found to facilitate weight gain only when the intervention
was started when the preterm infant weighed between 1100 and 1300 g.
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., Diego, M., & Beutler, J. (2001). Letter-to-the-Editor:
Evidence-Based Medicine and Massage. Pediatrics, 108 (4), 1053.
____________
Review of supplementary stimulation programs for preterm infants including
nonnutritive sucking, kangaroo care, and massage therapy.
Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M and Freedman, J. (2004). Stimulation programs
for preterm infants. Social Policy Report, 18, 1-19.
____________
____________________________________________________________________
Routine heelstick procedures and tactile-kinesthetic
massage were performed on stabilized preterm neonates to examine the differential
effects on Transcutaneous Oxygen Tension (TcPO2). TcPO2 levels during
the heelstick were significantly lower than during the massage stimulation.
The findings indicate that social forms of touch such as massage do not
appear to have a medically compromising effect on TcPO2.
Morrow, C., Field, T., Scafidi, F.A., Roberts, J., Eisen, L., Larson,
S.K., Hogan, A.E., and Bandstra, E.S. (1991). Differential effects of
massage and heelstick procedures on Transcutaneous Oxygen Tension in preterm
neonates. Infant Behavior and Development, 14, 397-414.
____________________________________________________________________
Preterm Newborns Gain More Weight
Preterm infants gained 47% more weight, became more
socially responsive, and were discharged 6 days earlier at a hospital
cost savings of $10,000 per infant (or 4.7 billion dollars if the 470,000
preemies born each year were massaged). The underlying biological mechanism
for weight gain in the massaged preterm newborns may be an increase in
vagal tone and, in turn, an increase in insulin (food absorption hormone).
Field, T., Schanberg, S. M., Scafidi, F., Bauer, C. R., Vega-Lahr, N.,
Garcia, R., Nystrom, J., & Kuhn, C. M. (1986). Tactile/ kinesthetic
stimulation effects on preterm neonates. Pediatrics, 77, 654-658.
__________
Preterm infants gained more weight following as few as
5 days of massage therapy.
Dieter, J., Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Emory, E and Redzepi, M. (2003).
Stable preterm infants gain more weight and spent less time sleeping and
more time in the drowsy states following 5 days of massage therapy a.
Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 28, (6) 403-411.
__________
Preterm Infants received tactile/kinesthetic stimulation
over a 10-day period. The infants averaged 21% greater weight gain per
day and spent more time awake and active during sleep/wake behavior observations.
Scafidi, F., Field, T., Schanberg, S., Bauer, C, Tucci, K., Roberts, J.,
Morrow, C., & Kuhn, C.M. (1990). Massage stimulates growth in preterm
infants: A replication. Infant Behavior and Development ,13,167-188.
__________
Preterm infants received three daily 15-minute massages
for 10 days. The massage therapy infants gained significantly more weight
per day than did the control infants. For the massage therapy group, the
pattern of greater caloric intake and more days in Intermediate care before
the study period along with more obstetric complications differentiated
the high from the low weight gainers, suggesting that the infants who
had experienced more complications before the study benefited more from
the massage therapy.
Scafidi, F., Field, T., & Schanberg, S. (1993). Factors that predict
which preterm infants benefit most from massage therapy. Developmental
and Behavioral Pediatrics, 14, 176-180.
__________
Although the underlying mechanism for this relationship
between massage therapy and weight gain has not yet been established,
possibilities that have been explored in studies with both humans and
rats include (a) increased protein synthesis, (b) increased vagal activity
that releases food-absorption hormones like insulin and enhances gastric
motility and (c) decreased cortisol levels leading to increased oxytocin.
Field, T. (2001). Massage therapy facilitates weight gain in preterm infants.
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 51-54.
____________________________________________________________________
Preterm Newborns Sleep Better
Preterm infants who were massaged before sleep fell asleep
more quickly and slept more soundly with better sleep patterns. They showed
improved weight gain as compared to infants who were not massaged before
sleep.
Scafidi, F., Field, T., Schanberg, S., Bauer, C., Vega-Lahr, N., &
Garcia, R. (1986). Effects of tactile/kinesthetic stimulation on the clinical
course and sleep/wake behavior of preterm neonates. Infant Behavior
and Development, 9, 91-105.
Preterm Infants Develop Better: Preterm infants who received
massage therapy as newborns showed greater weight gain and more optimal
cognitive and motor development eight months later.
Field, T., Scafidi, & Schanberg, S. (1987). Massage of preterm newborns
to improve growth and development. Pediatric Nursing, 13, 385-387
Examined the effectiveness of pre-bedtime massages for infants and toddlers with sleep onset problems. Found that, compared to bedtime stories, massages produced fewer sleep delays and a shortened latency to sleep onset. Field, T., & Hernandez-Reif, M., (2001). Sleep problems in infants decrease following massage therapy. Early Child Development and Care, 168, 95-104.
Depressed versus non-depressed mothers were interviewed
on their breastfeeding practices and perceptions of their infants' feeding
behavior when their infants were eight-months-old. The depressed mothers
less often breastfed, they stopped breastfeeding their infants significantly
earlier in infancy and they scored lower on a breastfeeding confidence
scale. Independent of maternal depression, mothers who breastfed rather
than bottle fed their infants had higher confidence levels and rated their
infants as less alert and less irritable during feedings.
Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M.,, Feijo, L. (2002). Breastfeeding in Depressed
Mother-Infant Dyads. Early Child Development and Care 172, 539
- 545
Healthy, low-risk preterm infants gained more weight
and slept less with just 5 days of massage, in contrast to 10 days in
previous studies. Results support the continued use of massage as a cost-effective
therapy for medically stable preterm infants.
Dieter JN, Field T, Hernandez-Reif M, Emory EK, Redzepi M. (2003) Stable
preterm infants gain more weight and sleep less after five days of massage
therapy. J Pediatr Psychol, 28, 403-11.
Compared with preterm neonates receiving sham massage, preterm neonates receiving massage therapy exhibited greater weight gain and increased vagal tone and gastric motility during and immediately after treatment. Gastric motility and vagal tone during massage therapy were significantly related to weight gain. The weight gain experienced by preterm neonates receiving moderate-pressure massage therapy may be mediated by increased vagal activity and gastric motility.
Diego MA, Field T, Hernandez-Reif M. (2005). Vagal activity, gastric motility, and weight gain in massaged preterm neonates. J Pediatr. 147, 50-5
____________________________________________________________________
Psychiatric Patients (Child and Adolescent)
Following five 30-minute massages these children/ adolescents
had better sleep patterns, lower depression and anxiety and lower stress
hormone levels (cortisol and norepinephrine).
Field, T., Morrow, C., Valdeon, C., Larson, S., Kuhn, C., & Schanberg,
S. (1992). Massage therapy reduces anxiety in child and adolescent psychiatric
patients. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry, 31, 125-130.
____________________________________________________________________
Maternally deprived rat pups showed increased growth
hormone following simulated rubbing.
Pauk, J., Kuhn, C., Field, T., and Schanberg, S. (1986). Positive effects
of tactile versus kinesthetic or vestibular stimulation on neuroendocrine
and ODC activity in maternally deprived rat pups. Life Science, 39,
2081-2087.
____________________________________________________________________
Review Papers
Research is reviewed on the critical nature of rubbing
the rat pup and the preterm newborn for their growth and development.
Schanberg, S. & Field, T. (1987). Sensory deprivation stress and supplemental
stimulation in the rat pup and preterm human neonate. Child Development,
58, 1431-1447.
__________
Massage Therapy for Infants and Children: The effects
of massage therapy on infants and children with various medical conditions
are reviewed. The conditions range from infants who are premature, cocaine-exposed,
HIV-exposed and infants of depressed mothers. The childhood conditions
include asthma, burns, cancer, dermatitis, diabetes, eating disorders
(bulimia), juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, posttraumatic stress disorder,
and psychiatric disorders.
Field, T. (1995). Massage therapy for infants and children. Developmental
and Behavioral Pediatrics, 16, 105-111.
__________
Massage Therapy Effects: Infant, child and adult massage
therapy studies ranging across many conditions including attention disorders,
depression, addictions, pain syndromes, immune and autoimmune disorders
are reviewed along with potential underlying mechanisms.
Field, T. (1998). Massage therapy effects. American Psychologist,
53, 1270-1281.
__________
Massage Therapy Effects on Infants and Children: Infant
and child massage therapy studies ranging across several conditions are
reviewed along with recommendations to pediatricians and parents.
Field, T. (1999). Massage therapy: More than a laying on of hands.Contemporary
Pediatrics, 16, 77-94.
__________
Massage Therapy: Research on massage therapy and its
effects on various conditions including depression, anorexia nervosa,
smoking, fibromyalgia, migraine headaches, immune disorders, and diabetes.
Field, T. (2002). Massage therapy. Complementary and Alternative Medicine,
86, 163-171.
__________
This review covers massage therapy research from the
last decade, as an update to the American Psychologist 1998 review paper.
Models are presented for potential biochemical and physiological mechanisms
underlying the massage therapy effects.
Field, T. Diego, M. Hernandez-Reif, M. (2006). Massage therapy research.
Developmental Review.
____________________________________________________________________
Massage therapy reduced aversion to touch and decreased
anxiety, depression and cortisol levels in women who had been sexually
or physically abused.
Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Hart, S., Quintino, O., Drose, L., Field,
T., Kuhn, C., & Schanberg, S (1997). Sexual abuse effects are lessened
by massage therapy, Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 1,65-69
____________________________________________________________________
Sleep
Preschool children who had received massage fell asleep
sooner and slept longer during nap time, had decreased activity levels
and better behavior ratings.
Field, T., Kilmer, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., & Burman, I. (1996). Preschool
Children's Sleep and Wake Behavior: Effects of massage therapy. Early
Child Development and Care, 120, 39-44.
__________
Infants who received massage therapy before bedtime by
a parent experienced less difficulty falling asleep and better sleep patterns.
Field, T. & Hernandez-Reif, M. (2001). Sleep problems in infants decreased0
following massage therapy. Early Child Development and Care, 168, 95-104.
____________________________________________________________________
Smoking
Cravings, anxious behaviors and the number of cigarettes
smoked were reduced by self-massage (rubbing ear lobes or hands whenever
subjects experienced a craving).
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., and Hart, S. (1999). Smoking cravings are
reduced by self-massage. Preventive Medicine, 28, 28-32.
____________________________________________________________________
Spinal Cord Injuries
Massage therapy improved functional abilities, range
of motion and muscle strength in spinal cord injury patients.
Diego, M., Field, T., and Hernandez-Reif, M., Brucker, B., Hart, S., &
Burman, I. (2002). Spinal cord patients benefits from massage therapy.
International Journal of Neuroscience, 112,133-142.
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